Estimation of Tramadol Hydrochloride and Diclofenac Sodium

Estimation of Tramadol Hydrochloride and Diclofenac Sodium Derivative Spectrophotometric Method for Estimation of Tramadol Hydrochloride and Diclofenac Sodium in Pharmaceutical Dosage Form Pekamwar S. S., Kalyankar T. M, Lokhande M. V. ABSTRACT Purpose: Tramadol is opioid analgesic and diclofenac is NSAID and are used in severe to moderate pain management. Combination of Tramadol and Diclofenac drugs were approved by FDA to market in India with a dose of 50 mg for TRA and 75 mg DIC respectively. Method: The employed method is based on first order derivative spectrophotometry. Wavelengths 278.7 nm and 281.7 nm were selected for the estimation of the Tramadol and Diclofenac respectively by taking the first order derivative spectra. The concentrations of both drugs were determined by proposed method. The results of analysis have been validated statistically and by recovery studies as per ICH guidelines. Result: Both the drugs obey Beer’s law in the concentration range of 5-30 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 and 5-45 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 with regression 0.9997 and 0.9990, intercept- 0.0008 and 0.0062 and slope- 0.004 and 0.0316 for TRA and DIC respectively. The accuracy and reproducibility results are close to 100% with 2% RSD. Conclusion: A simple, a ccurate, precise, sensitive and economical procedures for simultaneous estimation of Tramadol and Diclofenac in tablet dosage form have been developed Key words: Tramadol, Diclofenac, First order derivative spectrophotometry, ICH guidelines, Validation, FDA Introduction Tramadol Hydrochloride (TRA) is a synthetic 4-phenylpiperidine analogue of codeine. Chemically it is cis -2-[(dimethylamino) methyl]-1-(3 methoxyphenyl) cyclohexanol hydrochloride (Figure-1), is a centrally acting opioid analgesic, indicated in the treatment of moderate to severe pain. TRA is used to treat postoperative (dental, cancer etc.) pain, treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, restless legs syndrome, motor neuron disease and fibromyalgia and as an adjuvant to NSAID therapy 1-8. Chemically Diclofenac Sodium (DIC) is 2-{2-[(2, 6- dichlorophenyl) amino] phenyl} acetic acid (Figure -2), is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drug. DIC gives anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic action thought the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis by inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX). DIC is used in acute to chronic treatment of signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis 9-19. Tramadol (50 mg) and Diclofenac (75 mg) combination, resulting central and peripheral analgesia a â€Å"balanced analgesia† used in wider spectrum of pain management. In the literature survey it was found that various analytical methods involving spectrophotometry 1-4, HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography) 5-7, stability-indicating RP-HPLC (Reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography) 8, and GC/MS (Gas chromatography- mass spectrophotometry) 7 have been reported for TRA in single form and in combination with other drugs. Several analytical methods have been reported for DIC in single form and in combination with other drugs including spectrophotometry 9-12, HPLC 13-16, RP-HPLC 17,18, and LC-MS (Liquid chromatography-mass spectrophotometry) 19. Extensive literature survey reveals that derivative spectrophotometric method is yet not reported for simultaneous determination of TRA and DIC in tablet dosage form. In the present work an attempt is being made to develop simple, precise, accurate and reproducible first-order derivative UV- spectrophotometric method for simultaneous estimation of TRA and DIC in combined dosage form. Materials and Methods Apparatus and Instruments The instrument used in the present study was UV- spectrophotometer UV-1800 (Shimadzu, Japan) with spectral bandwidth of 2 nm and 10 mm a matched quartz cell was used. All weighing was done on Digital balance (Anamed). Chemicals and Reagents Analytically pure drug sample of TRA and DIC was kindly provided by Supriya Lifescience Ltd. (Mumbai, India) and J.B. Chemicals Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (Gujarat, India) respectively. The pharmaceutical dosage form used in this study was unavailable in market but has been approved by the FDA to market in India. So this bilayer (Core) tablets manufactured in School of Pharmacy, S.R.T.M. University, Nanded, labeled to contain 50 mg of TRA and 75 mg of DIC. All chemicals (AR grade) were purchased from RANKEM, Delhi, India. Preparation of standard stock solutions Accurately weighed 10 mg of TRA and DIC transferred to two separate 100 mL volumetric flasks. Added sufficient methanol and sonicated for 5 min. and volume was made upto 100 mL with methanol. 1 mL of the stock solution was further diluted to 10 mL with methanol to get a working standard solution of concentration 10 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 of both TRA and DIC and scanned in the wavelength range of 200-400 nm. First-Order Derivative Spectroscopic Method 20, 21 Working standard solution of concentration 10 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 of both TRA and DIC were scanned in spectrum mode between 400-200 nm using methanol as a blank. Then zero order spectrums of both the drugs were transformed mathematically into their individual first order derivative spectrum and first derivative overlain of both the drugs were obtained in 400-200 nm which is shown in figure 3, figure 4 and figure 5. It was observed that wavelengths selected for quantification of both the drugs were 281.7 nm for TRA and 271.7 nm for DIC in such a way that at zero crossing of one drug another drug shows substantial absorbance (Zero crossing method). Therefore these two wavelengths were employed for the estimation of TRA and DIC without any interference. The calibration curves were plotted at these two wavelengths. Preparation of Sample Stock Solution Contents of twenty tablets were weighed accurately and powdered. Powder equivalent to 50 mg of TRA and 75 mg of DIC was weighed and dissolved in 50 mL of methanol with the aid of ultrasonication for 5 min. The solution was filtered through Whatman filter paper no. 41 to a 100 mL volumetric flask. Filter paper was washed with methanol, adding washings to the volumetric flask and volume was made up to the mark with methanol to get sample stock solution which was further diluted with methanol to get final concentration of solution (TRA 10 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 and DIC 15 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 ) in the linearity range. Results and Discussions Linearity and range A standard stock solution was prepared for both TRA and DIC; they were serially diluted to yield six for TRA and nine for DIC standard solutions. For UV spectrophotometric method, linearity was obtained in concentration range of 5-30 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1 and 5-45 ÃŽ ¼g mL-1; with regression 0.9997 and 0.9990, intercept- 0.0008 and 0.0062 and slope 0.004 and 0.0316 for TRA and DIC respectively. The results are depicted in table1. Accuracy and precision To ascertain the accuracy of the proposed methods, recovery studies were carried out by standard addition method at three different levels (80%, 100% and 120%) as per ICH guidelines. Known amount of pure TRA and DIC were added in preanalyzed powder of tablet formulation and analysis was carried out by proposed method for recovery at each level and % recovery, SD, % RSD was calculated. Results of recovery studies are shown in Table 2. The accuracy and reproducibility is evident from the data as results are close to 100 % and the value of standard deviation and % R.S.D. were found to be Specificity The proposed method was found to be specific as there is no interference from other excipients. Results of analysis of tablet formulation Analysis of formulated tablet was carried out and the amounts recovered were expressed as percentage amount of tablet claim. The percentage recovery for TRA is 100.52 ±1.486 and DIC is 99.57 ±0.555 respectively. The proposed methods was evaluated by the assay (n = 6) of formulated tablets containing TRA and DIC. The results of assay are presented in Table 3. LOD and LOQ LOD was found to be 0.0686  µg mL-1and 0.155  µg mL-1 for TRA and DIC respectively. LOQ was found to be 0.2081  µg mL-1 and 0.4719  µg mL-1 for TRA and DIC respectively. The results of LOD and LOQ are shown in table 4. Conclusion The first-order derivative spectrophotometric method has been developed for simultaneous determination of TRA and DIC in combined dosage form. The developed and validated first order derivative spectrophotometric method is simple, economic, accurate and reproducible. The method was validated as per ICH guidelines in terms of linearity, specificity, accuracy, precision, limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ). The proposed validated method can be utilized for routine analysis and quality control assay of TRA and DIC in combined dosage form. Acknowledgments The authors are very thankful to Supriya Lifescience Ltd., Mumbai and J.B. Chemicals Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Gujarat, India for providing Tramadol Hydrochloride and Diclofenac sodium respectively as gift samples of pure drugs. Authors are also very thankful to School of Pharmacy, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University, Nanded, Maharashtra, India for providing all the necessary facilities to complete research work very successfully. Conflict of interest The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Of Mice and Men “Which of the character in of mice and men is the loneliest and why?” Essay

â€Å"Of mice and men† is the title of John Steinbeck’s novella the name is inspired by Robert Burns’s poem. There was a belief that America was the land of opportunity. In the nineteen hundreds, there was great depression in America because there wasn’t enough money around, so people couldn’t get jobs with decent pay. Some people went around from farm to farm doing temporary work, they were called ranch workers. Due to this lack of money and jobs being temporary, people moved around so much they were unable to hold friendships, so some people became very anti social and others developed unusual characteristics. John Steinbeck was a writer who did travel around ranches and had an idea of what the ranch life was like I believe he wrote the novella not just to show people the lives lead in the great depression but also to give them an idea of what his personal experiences had been like. The two main characters in â€Å"Of Mice and Men† are George and Lennie. George is first introduced as being â€Å"small and quick, dark of face, with restless eyes and sharp, strong features.† where as Lennie is described as being Georges opposite â€Å"his opposite, a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, pale eyes, with wide sloping shoulders:† Lennie is very distinctive for his animal like qualities. During the play Of Mice and Men George and Lennie go round together unlike most others people in there time. Lennie has a mental disability where he forgets large amounts of the information he is given. This causes him to have to rely on his instincts. He possesses a child-like characteristic in the way he acts and responds to the feedback others give him. Lennie is a large, powerful man. He and George have a strong friendship and have known each other for a long time and don’t want to lose each other despite the friction that Lennie’s memory occasionally causes in conversations. George is a clever person and has a powerful friendship with Lennie. He finds that he is sometimes isolated from proper conversation when alone with Lennie because of his superior intellect and understanding. George has a need to look after Lennie like a parent due to Lennies mentality, he was asked by Lennies aunt to look after him when she died. I believe he uses this reason as a partial excuse to hide his attachment to Lennie as a friend and parental figure which he needs to feel moderately more secure than those around him who travel alone. Both Lennie and George need each other’s friendship and each other’s ability to survive; George provides Lennie with knowledge of what to do and how to survive whereas George has Lennie to protect him from physical attacks as they go around. They also share a hope to accomplish the â€Å"American dream† to go â€Å"‘An’ live of the fatta the lan'† as Lennie states which basically means is to live of the land or farm the crops. I feel that both characters have developed unusual characteristics to deal with the lack of people they can rely on and trust. Lennie has an unusual desire to pet anything that’s alive and show it affection. This attachment to his desire causes him to break the rules George sets him to help himself. I think this form of emotion is propelled by his desire to have happiness and be loved by something that lives. This is fairly ironic as every animal he pets he kills due to his strength, which in turn creates a void of loneliness in Lennies life. George does not appear to have any huge flaws, he is fairly untrusting as to why people do things and analyses everything he’s told. Apart from Lennie, he has no solace and even the trust between him and Lennie cannot give him too much support as Lennie is retarded and attempts to sneak animals around with him. Because they both have each other, they don’t feel like the loneliest people in the world. Is something George says to Lennie â€Å"Guys like us, that work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world† â€Å"With us it ain’t like that. We got a future. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us.† Is what Lennie says after George has done his part of there story so all in all I don’t believe that either George or Lennie are the loneliest characters in Of Mice and Men because they have a friendship that no one else has and can talk between each other to an extent without worrying over consequences. The next person to be properly introduced into the novella is Candy, an old man who enters slowly into the room. Candy walks in and has his dog next to his heel an old sheep dog â€Å"gray of muzzle, and with pale, blind old eyes. The dog struggled lamely to the side of the room and lay down, grunting softly to himself and licking his grizzled, moth-eaten coat.† The dog is old and tired and hurts as it moves around; later on the dog is shot as it is of no use to anyone and is in pain whilst it’s alive. I feel the sheep dog reflects its owner’s future; as Candy grows older, he will be no use to any farm and will be kicked out and die due to his lack of money. I personally feel that the dog’s qualities are mentioned more than the man’s so that you see the man like his dog sharing a sort of bond similar to George and Lennies. Candy loses his dog the chapter after it is introduced. This dog is an animal that Candy has become extremely attached to and I believe he sees it as an old companion he can always trust to be there. When he looses his dog he looses his friend. Candy knows he is getting old and his fate in the novella seems sealed and he knows it. When he is of no use and cant do any labor work he will die. Which shows he must have lead a fairly lonely unfulfilled life even by that years standards. I consider Candy to be one of the people who could possibly be seen as the loneliest as he loses his companion and is sort of an image of how most ranch workers are doomed to end up dying due to loosing there abilities to work. He shows how desperate he is to escape his fate when joining with George and Lennie to try and get enough money to buy some land. The next character to be mentioned in â€Å"Of mice and Men† is Crooks he is a black person who is referred to as a nigger. He is disabled and outcast from the society of white people as racism was very strong in those years. He lives in a stable away from everyone else in the novella and has only books for company. The only one who ever enters his room without a purpose is Lennie and when he does Crooks starts off being uneasy about it when more people enter he pretends to be angry but it says â€Å"It was difficult for Crooks to conceal his pleasure with anger.† I think this suggests he is a decent guy who likes company but doesn’t want to appear weak to any of them. Crooks is taken advantage of by Curley’s wife a character who appears to everyone in the play to be trouble and not worth any of there time. She discriminates Crooks and has power over him because she is the bosses’ sons’ wife and they will believe anything she says about him and if that happens he will get kicked off the ranch. Of all of the people to be alone in this novella I believe Crooks is possibly one of the loneliest. Crooks has no one to be friends with, is discriminated against and shown prejudice and is also disabled so he cannot walk or get around easily. I think Crooks represents all people treated poorly because of racism and in a way how black people lived through the depression. The next person to enter into the novella is a woman whose name is never shown as she is always referred to as Curley’s wife, which shows that males are the dominant sex at the time the play is based on. Curley’s wife is the only woman within the entire novella she is a very complex woman and shows different people varied personality. She comes into the story flirting with the group of men she meets to tempt the men for attention and because she is bored. She wears makeup and has red lips and polished nails this suggests she has a lot of spare time. She is considered bad news by the men who are around her because she is the wife of Curley who is the son of the boss and can get anyone kicked off the farm. When alone with Lennie Curley’s wife confide in him about her life â€Å"I don’t like Curley. He ain’t a nice fella.†, â€Å"Coulda been in the movies, an’ had nice clothes – all of them nice clothes like they wear† I think that Curley’s wife was tricked by a chat up line about the possibility of her being in the movies and is fairly naive about the fact he could have been lying. I believe that she thought she was running out of options and time and decided to be with someone who wasn’t doing to badly for themselves and went with Curley. I believe this was a bad idea because Curley doesn’t have any time to be with her except to make she is being loyal to him and whilst doing this makes everyone try to evade her so they don’t get into trouble with Curley. So Curley’s wife doesn’t receive much attention apart from when taunting the men. She knows she has power over one of the workers especially and threatens Crooks as she knows how easily she can get him into trouble so she uses this power to entertain herself and discriminates him. I think that Curley’s wife could be one of the loneliest in the novella as everyone deliberately tries to evade her. Anyone she stays around gets threatened by her husband that does not spend time with her so she is left alone and since there are no other women around on this farm she is alone and powerless. Curley enters the novella shortly after his wife has and demands someone tell him where she is. I think Curley is a very insecure and aggressive, ignorant person. He is insecure because he is short and uses his strength to fight people who are tall so as to show that he is strong and keep a powerful reputation this makes him aggressive so the people he works around don’t like him. I feel he is ignorant for various reasons he fights to prove he is strong but the only one he is proving this too is himself whilst doing this he scares everyone else away as whoever he does fight will get in trouble and risk loosing there job as he is the son of the boss. Curley I don’t think is one of the loneliest in the novella as he has a wife and a successful parent to look after him and keep him content in several ways, he has the power to get rid of people he does not like or work against them and he gets respect from his status. Of all of these main characters in the novella I consider Candy and Crooks to be the two loneliest Candy because of the fact he knows how he will soon be useless and the fact he looses his closest companion and Crooks because he is disabled and discriminated against yet seems happy to be around people. I think Crooks also because he is sort of an outcast from a community that is made up from people who are afraid of each other but still able to group up on him when he is around. Both of these characters know they have no future where they are and wont be able to secure anything before dying both there fates are sealed with them completely alone unlike all the others that’s why I chose them.

A Day in the Life of a Mental Health Counselor Essay

It is a privilege to interview veteran therapists who are exiting the counseling arena after a long career in the profession. I was honored to shadow Lea Keylon, a seasoned counselor, who on the eve of retirement set aside time for a student interview. The enlightening interview opened my understanding to the importance of proper diagnostic coding for insurance reimbursements, the financial struggles of private practice, and the poignant effect of forensic counseling on therapist (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Lea was eager to share her counseling accounts; however, the excitement of retirement planning could be seen in her demeanor. Private practice requires self-discipline, constant research for legislative†¦show more content†¦Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Private Practice Contentment and Distress Lea, very graciously, invited me into a very small office space. Stating that her walls are not insulated, Lea placed a white noise maker box outside of her office door to distort our conversation (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Lea said being on her own, being in total control of her business, and being able to take her business wherever she travels (by way of a cell phone) are the positives of private practice (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Conversely, Lea stated not being a part of a larger organization and financial issues as a negative of private practice (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Lea said, Private practice can be very lucrative . . . but it feels very exposed, exposed to mal practice (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). Lea suggested obtaining a second source of income to compensate for cash flow problems due to the unpredictable flow of clients (L. Keylon, personal communication, March 26, 2010). 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The things that are done by anyone for someone will have an effect whether it is positive or negative. That is what psychology is all about. Psychology is a popular field because many jobs are found when obtaining a degree with the major. The many jobs that come from psychology include counseling, therapy, and psychologist of all types. It revolves around the problems or illnesses of another person’s life. Sometimes those problemsRead MoreWhy I Chose to Become a Mental Health Counselor Essay1290 Words   |  6 Pagesbecome a mental health counselor Counseling others is a difficult job that requires people to listen, take notes, and respond in ways that are positive and helpful. It is important that trust be built between the counselor and the patient so that the patient will feel comfortable speaking about issues that are private or embarrassing. 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Cheltenham High School (Chs) Serves1546 Words   |  7 Pagessystems, there’s not much information regarding mental health that’s available to teachers and students. This underlying need that has been brewing at Cheltenham High School since the start of the academic school year. Each week at practicum, there are stories of a crisis that had already occurred in relation to mental health. Upon consultation with teachers, staff and school nurse, the theme that consistently popped up was the lack of mental health knowledge or awareness and training to appropriatelyRead More The Identity of a Professional Counselor 1777 Words   |  7 PagesThe identity of a professional counselor may present numerous differences based on the specialization of counseling, as well as, overall identity factors that remain the same across the entire counseling spectrum. The paper examines key philosophies of the counseling profession which include: wellness, resilience, and prevention and how these philosophies impact the counseling profession. Next it will discuss the characteristics of an effective professional counselor in two different professionalRead MoreProfessional identity and career paper1483 Words   |  6 Pagesorganizations. The key characteristics of a counselor can be summarized as; Patience – a counselor has to provide patience when interacting with clients during sessions because everyone moves at their own pace while in therapy. The need to release negative feelings and move forward towards positive change can vary by client. Good Listener – counselors spend a large amount of time listening to their client’s stories and feelings, as counselors you have to be comfortable with providing this time

Human Resources Planning Development Assignment 1 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 955 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Main Objectives of Unilever: The main objective is to ensure that Unilever managers across the globe are equipped with a consistent set of skills and a common language that enable them to effectively tackle the business challenges they face. Prior to the initiative there were as many as 650 different suppliers providing management training, so the achievement of consistency was a key driver. Following a complex selection process TACK International was selected by Accenture as a key partner to develop the management capability for Unilever globally over a 5-7 year period. TACK was one of the few partners able to offer the consistency, breadth and depth of training portfolio Unilever needed. TACKs proven track record with global blue-chip companies and a robust infrastructure and delivery capability in close to 40 markets and 25 local languages was vital to managing this global solution. HRM Models in Unilever: For any social group to perform its tasks efficiently and achieve its common objectives, the management of its most important resources the people is of utmost importance. Until about the 1970s the task of lsquo;finding and controlling people was handled by Personnel Management which was largely an administrative function, dealing with the management and control of subordinates. The concept of Human Resource Management developed with a more strategic level of thinking about the nature and role of people (as total 24hr per day human beings) working in organizations which are lsquo;cultures in their own right. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Human Resources Planning Development Assignment 1" essay for you Create order Recent thinking has moved from the control-based model to the compliance model. The soft edge of the latter involves eliciting employee commitment and expecting effectiveness and efficiency to follow. The hard edge of the latter involves ridding the organization of unnecessary layers of middle management which, when stripped of control functions, have very little by way of value added. Like every other MNCs Unilever follows partial policies of both models. They are discussed as follows: Job Design Principal: a. Divide their operations into different subdivisions. b. It follows both specific job accountability and combined planning Implementation according to the need of their operation. c. The tasks operated by the employees are both in team and individually. Management Organizations: a. The employees are assigned into different hierarchies. It varies from country to country. b. As there remains strong hierarchy in Unilever so top-down control and coordination is practiced in this MNC. c. Status symbol is also visible in Unilever. But it does not create any confusion among the employees of different countries or cultures. Compensation: a. The employees of different position in the hierarchy are paid compensation according to their job performance. Salary is paid monthly. Other packages such stock options, bonus, etc are also provided during special occasions like religious festivals, companys progress etc. Employee Voice: a. Unilever follows Unionized policy to ensure the highest employee benefits like control damage, bargaining. Labor Management Relations: a. Joint problem-solving and planning policy is practiced in Unilever to encourage the willingness of the workers towards the company. Management Philosophy: a. Management is responsible to the stakeholders for their performance. Top level management discuss with other managers and related officials to reach in a decision. It believes that fulfillment of employees needs is a goal rather than an end. Key HRM activities in Achieving Organizational goal of Unilever: The key HR activities performed by Unilever to achieve its organizational goal are described as follows: Organization structuring It refers to developing an organization which caters for all the activities required, groups them together in a way which encourages integration and co-operation. HR is very helpful for Unilever to achieve its goals. As we said before that Unilever managers across the globe are equipped with a consistent set of skills and a common language that enable them to effectively tackle the business challenges they face. The complete structure of Unilever made by its HRM department is very much effective and efficient to meet this goal. HR professionals follow different structure methods to select and choose the best option for structuring. Job design and role specification It refers to deciding on the contents of the jobs- their duties and responsibilities and the relationships that exist between job holders and other people in the organization. The job designed by the HRM department are very much straight forward for meeting the goal and purposes. On the other hand the role specification of each employee are so organized that the partners like TACK are able to offer the consistency, breadth and depth of training portfolio Unilever needed. Organizational development It refers to stimulating, planning and implementing programs designed to improve the effectiveness with which the organization functions and adapts to change. The market is changing every moment. Like other companies Unilever has to cope up with this change to remain and fight with its competitors in the market. The development made by HRM department is so structured that it describes a perfect way to meet its goals. Reference: https://www.tacknederland.nl/index.php/onzeklanten?7ad88924ca3d24beb8651ffe4c48a5c6=489755574542486226ff2ac267a703ad https://www.unilever.com/aboutus/purposeandprinciples/?WT.LHNAV=Purpose__principles After Lundy O (1994) From Personnel Management to Strategic Human Resource Development, International Journal of Human Resource Management Vol 5 pp 687-720 Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Quinn-Mills, D., Walton, R.E. 1984. Managing Human Assets. New York, USA. Free Press Pilbeam, S., Corbridge, M. 2002. People Resourcing: HRM in practice, 2nd ed. Harlow, England. Pearson Education Ltd. Prahalad, C. K. and Hamel, G, 1990. The Core Competence of the Corporation, Harvard Business Review. Vol. 68, No 3, pp 79-91. Mullins L.J., Management and Organisational Behaviour (7th edition, Prentice Hall, 2005) ISBN: 0-273068876-6 The arrangement (formal system of relationship) which is necessary to pursue goals (Perrow, 1965).

The Importance Of Professional Standards And Institutional...

The Importance of Professional Standards and Institutional Ethics A Review of Two Medical Cases Lisa Martinez HA570: Healthcare Ethics Kaplan University 01 September 2014 The intention of this paper is to analysis two medical cases and respond to the questions at the end of each scenario, explain the appropriate ethical course of action and legal requirements for actions in each case. Throughout this paper, professional standards and institutional ethics will be discussed and this writer propose that further studies should be considered in order to fully identify with the ethical/legal relationship between physician and patient in regards medical treatment or procedures. For the purpose of this paper and before reviewing both each medical case, professional standards and institutional ethics will be defined in order to discuss the following medical cases. The Importance of Professional Standards and Institutional Ethics A Review of Two Medical Cases Professional standards has traditionally established standard of conduct that administrates its members. It is the traditional understanding of the healthcare profession that they are supposed to control entry and monitor themselves. This responsibility is twofold: first, there is the responsibility to maintain and improve quality of care and secondly there is a responsibility to monitor the profession in order to protect society from unqualified professionals (Garret et al., 2010). Moreover,Show MoreRelatedMy Ethical Principles Of The Student Affairs Profession Essay1476 Words   |  6 Pagesstudent affairs profession is the importance and involvement of ethics within your daily life and within the workplace. From personal experience I believe that autonomy, faithfulness, doing no harm, and the ability to be just are extremely important. 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The Heart of Change Organizational Behavior free essay sample

Introduction Change is one of the most basic and consistent basis of life, it is constant throughout every aspect of our lives. Even with its consistent nature and ever presence, it is our human nature to avoid and resist it. The Heart of Change, by John Kotter and David Cohen (2002), shows the processes by which all the negative atmosphere around change can be made to be positive and change can be effective. Kotter and Cohen focus on redirecting attitudes about change and minimizing the disruptions and aberrations caused by change. The pair lay out an eight step method of effectively creating organizational change. These steps run a great parallel to the text, Organizational Behavior and Management, by Ivancevich, Konopaske, and Matteson, (2011). The two methods are not the same, but are a great study for to gain an understanding of different approaches and outcomes of change. Discussion The Heart of Change (Kotter, Cohen 2002) begins with a reminder that change is not driven by spreadsheets, numbers, and calculations, rather are driven by emotion, feeling, and passion. When change is needed within an organization, it driven by unanimous feelings among employees and staff and these feelings are driven by emotional drivers that convince people that change is absolutely needed. For example managers may look at a financial statement, with a very poor sales margin, which evokes feelings of disappointment, frustration, and a desire for more. No one likes those feelings and therefore decisions are made that may prevent those feelings. These decisions or changes are not made because the sales margin was 15 percent, but were instead made because of the emotions and feelings that 15 percent evoked. That number could have been 10 or 20 percent could have still evoked the same feelings, therefore the number itself did not cause the change. Just as Kotter and Cohen explain, the authors of the text Organizational Behavior and Management state that change is absolutely necessary, especially because of the ever developing business environment. Things such as globalization, technology, shifting demographics, new markets and more are emotional stimuli that evoke the need for change, and that change must be fast and people must be able to change and adapt to that change as fast as it happens. The authors feel that change is absolutely necessary in order to advance within a career, improve productivity, and manage several different roles within an organization at just about a nonstop pace. This analysis of change runs a very close parallel to that described by Kotter and Cohen. (Ivancevich, et al, 2008) Creating a sense urgency is the first step in Kotter and Cohen’s initiative for creating effective change within an organization, which can be used in any facet of life. A feeling of urgency catapults employees toward a common goal. It encourages team building and the development of camaraderie, as well as lending itself to spotlighting potential future leaders. The authors liken it to pushing a large boulder up a very large hill, where everyone must come together and work together in order to get the task accomplished, as a team. (Kotter Cohen, p. 15, 2002). This sense of urgency will aid in facilitating the creation of the leading group and develop the teamwork needed to create the change. The text parallels creating a sense of urgency, but instead addresses it as energizing employees throughout the organization. It states that if all employees, no matter their rank, are energized about a project or a goal there is a much higher prospect of success. (Ivancevich, et al, p. 522, 2008). Energizing refers to the emotion or attitude, set by internal or external forces, toward a change that is already in motion. Internal forces are those such as management and employees who lack the efficiency or adequacy to effectively do their job causing a need for change. External forces include economic and global changes and others that are out of our control. This differs a bit from Kotter and Cohen, who use urgency to create change. Once a sense of urgency has been established, the next step begins, which is Team Building. Team building begins with the formation of a group. The Authors of both readings clarify that a team is a well-developed group with a sense of cohesion which allows team members to rely on one another and work both independently and dependently. Kotter and Cohen add that a team must also develop a sense of trust, which is accomplished through the interdependence of the team. (Kotter Cohen, p. 50, 2002). Once a cohesive team has formed, a vision must be developed. This vision sets the plan for the change strategy. The vision is what sets the first two steps in motion. The vision may be influenced by many different factors, but Kotter and Cohen lay out four possibilities, including budgets, plans, strategies, and visions. These are all features that may not necessarily be defined only by the team itself. The team must be able to delegate certain tasks to other groups in order to facilitate change. Kotter and Cohen explain that people outside the team may be critical in providing information and in creating the best process. (Kotter Cohen, p. 68, 2002). The use of teams in the change process is the first area where Ivancevich, et al, stray from parallel to Kotter and Cohen. The text, here on in, approaches change a bit differently than in â€Å"The Heart of Change. † The text puts a higher emphasis on the structural approach to change. The structural approaches are those such as task and technology, people, multifaceted, and appreciative inquiry. The text approaches insure that the manager remains in the primary roles, delegating and maintaining. It seems as though these approaches would work well when paired with other aids, such as â€Å"The Heart of Change. † After the vision is established, employees must now accept and fully believe in the reality of the change. Employees must be able to understand and relate to the need and process of the change in order to buy into it and all the change to occur. This step is the one that most often leads to failed change. It fails primarily because the vision is not clear or well communicated. After the vision is set, the text refers to a charismatic leader, used to instill the vision and lead the steps of change. This leader is able to express what the future could hold and what it will be like once the change occurs. This leader is able to use different communication techniques to tie the needs and goals of individuals to those of the organization. (Ivancevich, et al, p. 459, 2008). Kotter and Cohen give a list of characteristics needed to successfully lead a team, which are very similar to those of a charismatic leader. The list includes features such as communication, vision, and motivation. (Kotter Cohen, p. 46, 2002). The people within the team who possess these characteristics are referred to as change leaders, and unlike in the text, there is often more than one. It is agreed that personality plays a huge role in communicating the vision and getting people to buy into the change. Empowerment is the next step on the road to change. For empowerment to take place, the vision must be unanimously accepted. Here the two sets of authors once again parallel, barriers must be removed before activities and behaviors can be empowered. (Ivancevich, et al. p. 346. 2008) (Kotter Cohen. p. 108. 2002). Barriers can be any number of things, including the shared experience of failed empowerment between employees, poor decision making, unruly managers, the fear of inadequacy or failure, and barriers of the mind. Barriers of the mind, as explained by Kotter and Cohen, are those which cause employees to disempower themselves with bad experiences, failures, and self-defeating attitudes and concepts. There are also knowledge barriers, which cause employees to hold back in fear of negative feedback. (Ivancevich, et al p. 346; Kotter Cohen, p. 112). The purpose of the empowerment step is to be able to navigate these barriers and remove them as they appear, to create a nearly resistance free path. Kotter and Cohen report that people empower one another best when they identify clearly what the obstacles are between them and their goal (Cotter Cohen, p. 120). As soon as barriers are removed and action begins, the measures established during the planning and vision stage must be utilized. Actions and progress alike must be measureable in order to recognize the movement toward, or away from, the goal of change. Successful change efforts consist of an empowered team of people who are very deliberate and concise with their time and planning. The main focus is on tasks that can be done and quickly gain unambiguous, visible, and meaningful developments. Attaining these quick developments are important because they provide a sense of validity when presented to change leaders and to the team and all those involved in the change process. It also helps to establish a sense of certainty for those who may not yet be convinced that the change is good or needed. (Ivancevich, et al, p. 539). Implementing the Method suggests that the appropriate time to implement, and what scale or amount of change is introduced at one time, plays a key role during the action stage. How critical the change is needed is a big consideration to make, and whether it can be implemented in phases or through the entire organization at once should be gauged. Also, can it be phased into the organization level by level or department by department; all mentioned efforts suggesting a short-term win strategy (Ivancevich, et al). Throughout implementation, no matter if it is done in phases or collectively, employees must remain fully informed and momentum maintained to insure their efforts. The more relevant the wins are to the employees’ issues, concerns, and values, the easier it is for them to get behind the process and allow it to continue and grow. (Kotter Cohen, p. 130). Another aspect that often causes failure is calling it quits too early. It is easy for employees to lose their sense of urgency once they begin to see a bit of change. Urgency is a factor that must be maintained within an organization, and may be done so at different levels. It should be maintained at a level in which employees are still alert and recognize when change should continue. (Kotter Cohen, p. 143-144). â€Å"The twenty five page monthly report can be reduced to two. †(Kotter Cohen. P. 154), this idea would allow the delegation of more to those who may even do the job better. The alleviation the delegated work allows the manager to fully manage a team of employees and fight the egotistical self- fulfilling prophecy that only you can do the work, which in turn ultimately undermines your employees and they begin to believe you don’t let them because they actually can’t (Cotter and Cohen, p. 154). The text offers another tool to maintain momentum, which is to offer and acquire consistent feedback throughout the company. (Ivancevich, et al, p. 540). Management needs to receive feedback from employees, as much as, employees need feedback from management. This will also help to keep employees engaged and thinking about change and it’s ever presence, as well as that change should be continual throughout the life of the company in order to contend with economic evolution. (Ivancevich, et al, p. 540-542). The biggest challenges in creating lasting change are overcoming barriers and getting employees to â€Å"buy in† to the change. As set by Kotter and Cohen, in â€Å"The Heart of Change,† there are four general behaviors that obstruct needed change. These behaviors are as follows, complacency, immobilization or self-protection, deviance, and pessimistic attitudes. These behaviors are all actions that create barriers of fear and resistance. People are more apt to look at evidence given for needed change and hold back or complain about initiated action, rather than carefully looking at the evidence and starting to move, which results in the needed change effort not starting at all, or not starting well. (Kotter Cohen, p. 17, 2002). Kotter and Cohen encourage a see-feel-change analysis rather than a think-change process. This process has proven to work through cognitive behavior studies and is seen in an order of operations, thought or perception leading to feeling or emotion, and ending with action or behavior. This process allows for evaluation of actions before any are taken and encourages substandard responses and actions, which aids in change. Conclusion Through this analysis it can be seen that the authors of the text and the authors of â€Å"The Heart of Change,† have taken different but relatable approaches to instilling change within an organization. Kotter and Cohen, of â€Å"The Heart of Change,† use an innovative and almost therapeutic approach; whereas the text takes a process and authoritative approach. Both have their place and may not be appropriate for every change situation, and could also work well together. â€Å"The Heart of Change† gives wonderful examples, testimonials, and the chance to learn from others’ mistakes, but as a manager one must still be able to adjust his path toward and through change to best fit the needs and goals of his company and employees. It also takes the right personality and management style to be able to use Kotter and Cohen’s process. Both the text and â€Å"The Heart of Change† have similar basis and have the same fundamental goal, but different approaches to reach that goal. There is less structure and step by step action in Kotter and Cohen’s method, which alleviates the likelihood that managers and leaders will get stuck in trying to follow step for step in situations where the step for step does not fit, but can allow for some floundering on the same token. The text takes a scientific, step by step action method which also has its share of advantages and disadvantages.

Niccolo Machiavelli Essays - Italian Politicians, Machiavellianism

Niccolo Machiavelli Machiavelli wrote this book, The Prince,which is about becomming a political leader from examples of his own life. Niccolo Machiavelli lived from 1469 to 1527, saw what we now consider the height of the Italian Renaissance- a period that produced some of Italy's greatest achievements in the arts and sciences, but that also produced horrible scandals and the establishment of foreign domination over the peninsula. Brought up while members of the powerful Medici family were masters of Florence, he studied the classics and learned to read and write in Latin. He also showed a keen interest in, and the ability to learn from, the world around him. He was a diplomat, a student of history, and a writer of comedy, and his sharp and unique insights changed the face of political science forever. Machiavelli was born in Florence on May 3, 1469. We first hear of him playing an active role in the affairs of his native city in 1498, when the government dominated by Girolamo Savonarola, the Dominican friar whose puritanical views had influenced Florence for the preceding four years, fell from power. Therefore, the post was left unoccupied, but after a short delay the little known name of Niccolo Machiavelli was put forward as a possible replacement. He was only twenty-nine years old at the time and apparently had no previous administrative experience. His nomination was confirmed, however, and he was appointed second chancellor of the Florentine Republic. It was an enormous opportunity, and the experiences and insights he would gain in the post would be used later in writing The Prince. At the time Machiavelli entered public service, there were already well-established standards for filling major administrative positions in Florentine government. In addition to exhibiting diplomatic skill, civil servants were expected to display competence in the humane disciplines. These disciplines had been derived from ancient Roman sources especially from the orator and statesman Cicero, who had written about the need for formal study of Latin, rhetoric, history, moral philosophy, and politics to prepare a student for professional service to the community. Ultimately, they were the ancestor of the humanities, or liberal arts curriculum in contemporary education. The popularity of the humanistic ideals in Florentine government help explain how Machiavelli came to be appointed to a responsible government post at such an early age. His family, though neither rich nor aristocratic, were closely allied with the city's leading humanists. Machiavelli's father, Bernardo, a lawyer, had acquaintance with several distinguished humanist scholars. According to his father's diary, Machiavelli began formal education at the age of seven, which included the study of Latin, the language that was the passport to the world of humanistic learning. By the time Machiavelli was twelve he had graduated from primary school and was enrolled in private classes. Later, he was accepted at the University of Florence, where he received training in the humanities, literature, and sciences from Marcello Adriani, who succeeded Scala as first chancellor of Florence. During the next fourteen years, Machiavelli was sent on numerous diplomatic missions to France, Switzerland, and Germany. His observations abroad resulted in many of the ideas that form the basis for the major statements found in his political works. In The Prince, for example, Machiavelli comments at length on Germany's well-fortified cities and evaluates the weak leadership of the French king, Louis XII. History Reports